Overarching Semester Goal Actions

be aware of audience, situation, and purpose
write from the middle
know how to get sources (through ILL if need be)
- know what citations are (the parts and why they are there) and what they reveal (information for other researchers; epistemology of the discipline)
- gain familiarity with MLA, a primary citation system in the humanities
know how to form a research question
know how to select a method
- understand what IRB is
  - example IRB application for exemption: "Summarizing Content on Amazon's Mechanical Turk"
  - example IRB application for expedited study: "Project Management across Intercultural Contexts"
draft and revise
use a citation manager
know how to compose research in appropriate formats (such as articles and posters)

Text Mining

Computer-assisted techniques to collect and make meaning out of unstructured written language. Such techniques can be supervised—top-down approaches based on training algorithms with provided, properly tagged material—or unsupervised—bottom-up approaches based on letting algorithms group material by shared features without any connection to what those groupings may mean. We use text mining to learn something about a corpus—a collection of written documents—through things such as word frequencies, conceptual groupings, and sentiment analyses.

Text mining makes sense at scale. It's not really possible to read, understand, and associate half a million user comments, but it is possible to text mine them. In this case, even basic word frequency counts would provide useful insight, and the more material in the corpus the more robust those patterns should be (even if distinctions between them get fuzzier). Text mining may be viewed as an aspect of Natural Language Processing (NLP), which is the broader study and application of computation to both processing and producing authentic communication acts.

Resources:

Ignatow, G., & Mihalcea, R. (2017). Text mining, text analysis, and the future of social science. In Text Mining: A Guidebook for the Social Sciences (pp. 164-167). SAGE Publications, Inc, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483399782
Cameron, D., & Panović, I. (2014). Corpus-based discourse analysis. In Working with Written Discourse (pp. 81-96). SAGE Publications, Ltd, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473921917
Bauer, Martin W. and Bas Aarts. "Corpus Construction: a Principle for Qualitative Data Collection." Qualitative Researching with Text, Image and Sound. Edited by London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2000, pp. 20-37. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849209731.
Ignatow, Gabe and Rada Mihalcea. "Text Mining and Text Analysis." An Introduction to Text Mining: Research Design, Data Collection, and Analysis. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc, 2018, pp. 3-18. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781506336985.
Ledolter, Johannes and Lea S. VanderVelde. "Introduction." Analyzing Textual Information: From Words to Meanings through Numbers. Vol. 0. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2022, pp. 1-25. Sage Research Methods. Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071878828.
Behr, Dorothe and Kuniaki Shishido. "The Translation of Measurement Instruments for Cross-Cultural Surveys." The SAGE Handbook of Survey Methodology. 55 City Road: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2016, pp. 269-87. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473957893.
Ledolter, Johannes, and Lea S VanderVelde. “Word Distributions: Document-Term Matrices of Word Frequencies and the ‘Bag of Words’ Representation.” Sage Research Methods, Sage Publishing, methods-sagepub-com.liblink.uncw.edu/book/analyzing-textual-information/i382.xml. Accessed 16 Jan. 2024.

Examples:

Al-Astal, Ala-Eddin Yassin, et al. “Optimization of Prescription Drug Monitoring Program to Overcome Opioid Epidemic in West Virginia.” Cureus, Feb. 2022. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.22434.
Bowman, Mike. “Text-Mining Metadata: What Can Titles Tell Us of the History of Modern and Contemporary Art?” Journal of Cultural Analytics, vol. 8, no. 1, June 2023. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.22148/001c.74602.
Gobster, Paul H. “(Text) Mining the LANDscape: Themes and Trends over 40 Years of Landscape and Urban Planning.” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 126, June 2014, pp. 21–30. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.02.025.
Hossain, Arafat, et al. “Text Mining and Sentiment Analysis of Newspaper Headlines.” Information, vol. 12, no. 10, Oct. 2021, p. 414. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.3390/info12100414.
Jurca, Gabriela, et al. “Integrating Text Mining, Data Mining, and Network Analysis for Identifying Genetic Breast Cancer Trends.” BMC Research Notes, vol. 9, no. 1, Dec. 2016, p. 236. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-016-2023-5.
Karami, Amir, and Frank Webb. “Analyzing Health Tweets of LGB and Transgender Individuals.” Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology, vol. 57, no. 1, Oct. 2020, p. e264. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1002/pra2.264.
Lang, Chunmin, et al. “Understanding Consumers’ Online Fashion Renting Experiences: A Text-Mining Approach.” Sustainable Production and Consumption, vol. 21, Jan. 2020, pp. 132–44. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2019.12.003.
Villegas-Yarlequé, Mario, et al. “Bibliometric Analysis and Text Mining to Reveal Research Trends on Fruit By-Products under Circular Economy Strategies.” Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy, vol. 35, Oct. 2023, p. 101232. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scp.2023.101232.
Yoo, Ra, et al. “Exploring the Nexus between Food and Veg*n Lifestyle via Text Mining-Based Online Community Analytics.” Food Quality and Preference, vol. 104, Mar. 2023, p. 104714. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2022.104714.
Zhu, Mengyao, et al. “Visualizing the Annual Transition of Ocean Policy in Japan Using Text Mining.” Marine Policy, vol. 155, Sept. 2023, p. 105754. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2023.105754.

Content Analysis

Systematic examination of communication artifacts (textual documents, video recordings, images, etc.) to identify patterns, typically through coding (assigning artifacts labels or categorizing them). Approaches can be quantitative, by attempting to identify numerical or statistical patterns, or qualitative, by making interpreted evaluations of meaning.

Resources:

Krippendorff, Klaus. "Introduction." Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology.Fourth Edition ed Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2019, pp. 1-8. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071878781.
Neuendorf, Kimberly A. "Defining Content Analysis." The Content Analysis Guidebook.Second ed Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc, 2017, pp. 1-35. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071802878.
Nair, Lakshmi Balachandran. "Appraising Scholarly Impact Using Directed Qualitative Content Analysis: A Study of Article Title Attributes in Management Research". Sage Research Methods Cases Part 1. London: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2024. 22 Jan 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526444141.
Hsieh, Hsiu-Fang, and Sarah E. Shannon. “Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis.” Qualitative Health Research, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Nov. 2005, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16204405/.
Busenbark, John. Content Analysis: Key Constructs and Estimation Challenges. Online video clip. SAGE Video. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd., 5 Mar 2018. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526443397. 23 Jan 2024.
Weber, Robert. "Introduction." Basic Content Analysis.2nd ed Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., 1990, pp. 10-15. Sage Research Methods. Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412983488.
Constable, Rolly, et al. “Content Analysis Method and Examples: Columbia Public Health.” Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, 30 Mar. 2023, www.publichealth.columbia.edu/research/population-health-methods/content-analysis#:~:text=Courses-,Overview,words%2C%20themes%2C%20or%20concepts.
Schreier, Margrit. "Qualitative Content Analysis." The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Data Analysis. SAGE Publications, 2014, pp. 170-83. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446282243.

Examples:

Baker, Amy J. L., et al. “Training for Mandated Reporters of Child Abuse and Neglect: Content Analysis of State-Sponsored Curricula.” Child Abuse & Neglect, vol. 113, Mar. 2021, p. 104932. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.104932.
Dr. Saman Salah, et al. “Comparative Analysis of the Theme of ‘Love’ In John Donne’s ‘The Sun Rising’ And ‘The Good-Morrow.’” Al-Burz, vol. 11, no. 1, Dec. 2019, pp. 46–52. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.54781/abz.v11i1.59.
Eide, Megan. “Religion in Children’s Visual Media: A Qualitative Content Analysis of Preschool Holiday Specials.” Journal of Media and Religion, vol. 19, no. 3, July 2020, pp. 108–26. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1080/15348423.2020.1812339.
Garcia-Torres, Sofia, et al. “Effective Disclosure in the Fast-Fashion Industry: From Sustainability Reporting to Action.” Sustainability, vol. 9, no. 12, Dec. 2017, p. 2256. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.3390/su9122256.
Kumar, Harish, et al. “Moving towards Smart Cities: Solutions That Lead to the Smart City Transformation Framework.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change, vol. 153, Apr. 2020, p. 119281. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2018.04.024.
Lin, Shayne S. H., and Allison Walden. “Ageism in Birthday Cards: A Mixed-Method Content Analysis.” The Gerontologist, edited by Andrea Gilmore-Bykovskyi, Sept. 2023, p. gnad115. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnad115.
Moradi, Bonnie, et al. “A Content Analysis of Literature on Trans People and Issues: 2002–2012.” The Counseling Psychologist, vol. 44, no. 7, Oct. 2016, pp. 960–95. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000015609044.
Ngai, Cindy Sing Bik, et al. “Grappling With the COVID-19 Health Crisis: Content Analysis of Communication Strategies and Their Effects on Public Engagement on Social Media.” Journal of Medical Internet Research, vol. 22, no. 8, Aug. 2020, p. e21360. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.2196/21360.
Orr, Penelope P. “Art Therapy with Children after a Disaster: A Content Analysis.” The Arts in Psychotherapy, vol. 34, no. 4, Jan. 2007, pp. 350–61. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aip.2007.07.002.
Robinson, Ryan A. Described Experiences of Long-Distance Thru-Hiking: A Qualitative Content Analysis. 2013. Capella University, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation.

Data Visualization

Exploring information by presenting it in charts, graphs, and other visual formats in order to identify novel patterns. Data visualization is most commonly done with tabular data (content that can be represented in a spreadsheet as a list of observations in rows and features in columns).

In Better Data Visualizations, data scientist Jonathan Schwabish states that visualization can do two jobs: it can be exploratory (something you do to find patterns in data) or explanatory (something you do to illustrate to an audience what the patterns are). We are most interested in the former, because that is using data visualization as a method.

Resources:

Kennedy, Helen and William Allen. "Data Visualisation as an Emerging Tool for Online Research." The SAGE Handbook of Online Research Methods. 55 City Road: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2017, pp. 307-26. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473957992.
Schenk, Tom, et al. Data Visualization: Chicago Department of Innovation & Technology. Online video clip. SAGE Video. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd., 30 Sep 2016. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473997394. 31 Jan 2024.
"Visualizing your Data." Data Literacy: A User's Guide. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2016, pp. 145-48. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483399966.
Sue, Valerie M., and Matthew T. Griffin. Data Visualization & Presentation With Microsoft Office. SAGE Publications, Inc, 2016, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483397375.
Krzywinski, Martin. Data Encoding. Online video clip. SAGE Video. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd., 5 Mar 2018. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526443670. 31 Jan 2024.
(2017). What Is Data Visualization and How Do I Use It When Writing Up My Quantitative Research?. Project Planner. 10.4135/9781526408587.
Tableau. “What Is Data Visualization? Definition, Examples, and Learning Resources.” Tableau, www.tableau.com/learn/articles/data-visualization#:~:text=Data%20visualization%20is%20the%20graphical,outliers%2C%20and%20patterns%20in%20data. Accessed 31 Jan. 2024.
Herzog, David. "Visualizing Your Data." Data Literacy: A User's Guide. SAGE Publications, 2016, pp. 145-48. Sage Research Methods, doi: 10.4135/9781483399966.

Examples:

Archambault, Susan Gardner, et al. “Data Visualization as a Communication Tool.” Library Hi Tech News, vol. 32, no. 2, Apr. 2015, pp. 1–9. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1108/LHTN-10-2014-0098.
Boerner, Katelynn E., et al. “Data Visualization as an Intervention for Pediatric Chronic Pain: A Pilot Feasibility Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Crossover Trial.” Pilot and Feasibility Studies, vol. 8, no. 1, Oct. 2022, p. 223. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1186/s40814-022-01170-5.
Bowe, Emily, et al. “Learning from Lines: Critical COVID Data Visualizations and the Quarantine Quotidian.” Big Data & Society, vol. 7, no. 2, July 2020, p. 205395172093923. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951720939236.
Chen, Zhen Troy. “Slice of Life in a Live and Wired Masquerade: Playful Prosumption as Identity Work and Performance in an Identity College Bilibili.” Global Media and China, vol. 5, no. 3, Sept. 2020, pp. 319–37. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1177/2059436420952026.
Hendinata, Laurentius Kevin, et al. Data Visualization for Improved Mushroom Cultivation: A User-Friendly Approach. preprint, In Review, 5 Sept. 2023. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3303233/v1.
Hill, Rosemary Lucy. “What Is at Stake in Data Visualization? A Feminist Critique of the Rhetorical Power of Data Visualizations in the Media.” Data Visualization in Society, edited by Martin Engebretsen and Helen Kennedy, Amsterdam University Press, 2020, pp. 391–406. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1515/9789048543137-027.
Katz, Brian, and Antoine Weber. “An Acoustic Survey of the Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Paris before and after the Fire of 2019.” Acoustics, vol. 2, no. 4, Nov. 2020, pp. 791–802. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.3390/acoustics2040044.
Ma, Na, et al. “Exploring Personalized Fashion Design Process Using an Emotional Data Visualization Method.” Fashion and Textiles, vol. 9, no. 1, Dec. 2022, p. 44. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1186/s40691-022-00321-9.
Pawar, Aishwary. College Enrollment Trends and Pattern Evaluation “A Data Analytics Investigation.” 2020. Thesis. deepblue.lib.umich.edu, http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/154869.
Veldscholten, Sander. Spatial and Temporal Public Transport Data Visualization: Data Analysis Using a Decision Support System for Alternative Public Transport Services. 2018. University of Twente, PDEng, https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/spatial-and-temporal-public-transport-data-visualization-data-ana.

Surveying

Asking a representative sample group of people a structured list of questions to gather information about their thoughts, beliefs, opinions, or attitudes. (Surveying may be less effective than direct observations at recording behaviors, because it relies on self-reporting.) Surveying can be undertaken through multiple means: in person, online, over the phone, etc. It is a human subjects method with similarities to interviews and focus groups. In contrast to those options, surveying allows the researcher to collect a thin slice of quantitative information about a larger group.

Resources:

Lynn, Peter. What are Surveys?. Online video clip. SAGE Video. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd., 1 Jan 2015. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473930148. 14 Feb 2024.
Knekta, Eva, et al. “One Size Doesn’t Fit All: Using Factor Analysis to Gather Validity Evidence When Using Surveys in Your Research.” CBE—Life Sciences Education, edited by Peggy Brickman, vol. 18, no. 1, Mar. 2019, p. rm1. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.18-04-0064.
Blair, Johnny, et al. Designing Surveys: A Guide to Decisions and Procedures. Third Edition, 0 vols. 55 City Road, London: SAGE Publications, Inc, 2014. Sage Research Methods, 14 Feb 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071909904.
Czaja, Ronald and Johnny Blair. "An Introduction to Surveys and to This Book." Designing Surveys. 2nd ed Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press, 2005, pp. 1-9. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412983877.
CoreXM, Qualtrics. “What Is Survey Research?” Qualtrics, 15 Sept. 2023, www.qualtrics.com/experience-management/research/survey-research/.
Ruel, Erin. "What Is a Survey?." 100 Questions (and Answers) About Survey Research.Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2019, pp. 3. Sage Research Methods. SAGE 100 Questions and Answers, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781506348803.
Fox, James Alan. "Surveying Sensitive Topics." Randomized Response and Related Methods: Surveying Sensitive Data.Second Edition ed Vol. 0. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc, 2016, pp. 1-12. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781506300122.
Sapsford, Roger. "What is Survey Research?." Survey Research. 2nd ed London: SAGE Publications, Ltd, 2007, pp. 2-12. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857024664.

Examples:

Clifford, Joan, et al. “Surveying the Landscape: What Is the Role of Machine Translation in Language Learning?” @tic. Revista’innovació, vol. 0, no. 10, June 2013, pp. 108–21. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.7203/attic.10.2228.
Gomes De Oliveira, Luana, et al. “Sustainable Practices in Slow and Fast Fashion Stores: What Does the Customer Perceive?” Cleaner Engineering and Technology, vol. 6, Feb. 2022, p. 100413. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2022.100413.
Guttentag, Daniel, et al. “Why Tourists Choose Airbnb: A Motivation-Based Segmentation Study.” Journal of Travel Research, vol. 57, no. 3, Mar. 2018, pp. 342–59. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287517696980.
Imam, Rana. “Measuring Public Transport Satisfaction from User Surveys.” International Journal of Business and Management, vol. 9, no. 6, May 2014, p. p106. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v9n6p106.
MacDonald, Kai, et al. “Minimization of Childhood Maltreatment Is Common and Consequential: Results from a Large, Multinational Sample Using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire.” PLOS ONE, edited by James G. Scott, vol. 11, no. 1, Jan. 2016, p. e0146058. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146058.
Nathan, Nila, and Jamie Zeitzer. “A Survey Study of the Association between Mobile Phone Use and Daytime Sleepiness in California High School Students.” BMC Public Health, vol. 13, no. 1, Dec. 2013, p. 840. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-840.
Schuerwegen, Alana, et al. “The Psychology of Kink: A Cross-Sectional Survey Study Investigating the Roles of Sensation Seeking and Coping Style in BDSM-Related Interests.” Archives of Sexual Behavior, vol. 50, no. 3, Apr. 2021, pp. 1197–206. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01807-7.
Szánthó, Flóra, et al. “Is Your Dog Empathic? Developing a Dog Emotional Reactivity Survey.” PLOS ONE, edited by Mária A. Deli, vol. 12, no. 2, Feb. 2017, p. e0170397. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170397.
Wu, Stephanie C., et al. “Control of Lower Extremity Edema in Patients with Diabetes: Double Blind Randomized Controlled Trial Assessing the Efficacy of Mild Compression Diabetic Socks.” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, vol. 127, May 2017, pp. 35–43. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.02.025.
Zichello, Julia, et al. “A Natural History Museum Visitor Survey of Perception, Attitude and Knowledge (PAK) of Microbes and Antibiotics.” PLOS ONE, edited by George Vousden, vol. 16, no. 9, Sept. 2021, p. e0257085. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257085.

Interviewing

A human subjects research method similar to surveying, except that the researcher asks questions that are more open ended. Accordingly, the sample size (N) for interviews is typically smaller than it would be with surveys, but the qualitative content they collect is also generally richer (a thick slice instead of surveys' thin slice). Focus groups are group interviews, and they are used both for scholarly and commercial purposes. Interviews can be structured (questions are predetermined and set), unstructured (questions are not predetermined), or semi-structured (a mixture of structured and unstructured questions). For research purposes, structured and semi-structured interviews are more common to ensure equivalent representation for research subjects.

Resources:

Alvesson, Mats. Interpreting Interviews. SAGE Publications Ltd, 2011. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446268353.
Beyers, Jan, et al. “Let’s Talk! On the Practice and Method of Interviewing Policy Experts.” Interest Groups & Advocacy, vol. 3, no. 2, June 2014, pp. 174–87. Springer Link, https://doi.org/10.1057/iga.2014.11.
Brinkmann, Svend, and Steinar Kvale. Doing Interviews. SAGE Publications Ltd, 2018. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529716665.
Coleman, Phil. “In-Depth Interviewing as a Research Method in Healthcare Practice and Education: Value, Limitations and Considerations.” International Journal of Caring Sciences, vol. 12, no. 3, 2019, pp. 1879–85.
Gubrium, Jaber, and James Holstein. Handbook of Interview Research. SAGE Publications, Inc., 2001. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412973588.
Holstein, James, and Jaber Gubrium. Inside Interviewing. SAGE Publications, Inc., 2003. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412984492.
Hughes, Jason. SAGE Internet Research Methods. SAGE Publications Ltd, 2012. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446263327.
Morris, Alan. A Practical Introduction to In-Depth Interviewing. SAGE Publications Ltd, 2015. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473921344.
Roulston, Kathryn. Reflective Interviewing: A Guide to Theory and Practice. SAGE Publications Ltd, 2010. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446288009.

Examples:

Coleman, Phil. “In-Depth Interviewing as a Research Method in Healthcare Practice and Education: Value, Limitations and Considerations.” International Journal of Caring Sciences, vol. 12, no. 3, 2019, pp. 1879–85.
Frey, James H., and Andrea Fontana. “The Group Interview in Social Research.” The Social Science Journal, vol. 28, no. 2, June 1991, pp. 175–87, https://doi.org/10.1016/0362-3319(91)90003-M.
Kozlov, Aleksandr, et al. “Study of Experience in Blended Learning During the Pandemic: Comparative Analysis of Russian Universities.” International Scientific Siberian Transport Forum TransSiberia - 2021, edited by Aleksey Manakov and Arkadii Edigarian, vol. 403, Springer International Publishing, 2022, pp. 1131–41, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96383-5_126.
Manzer, Jamie L., and Ann V. Bell. “‘Did I Choose a Birth Control Method Yet?’: Health Care and Women’s Contraceptive Decision-Making.” Qualitative Health Research, vol. 32, no. 1, 2022, pp. 80–94, https://doi.org/10.1177/10497323211004081.
Miller, Lisa R. “Queer Aging: Older Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Adults’ Visions of Late Life.” Innovation in Aging, edited by Steven M Albert, vol. 7, no. 3, Apr. 2023, p. igad021, https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igad021.
Montoya, A., et al. “Traditional Knowledge about Mushrooms in a Nahua Community in the State of Tlaxcala, México.” Mycologia, vol. 95, no. 5, 2003, pp. 793–806, https://doi.org/10.1080/15572536.2004.11833038.
Oxburgh, Gavin, et al. “Interviewing Suspected Offenders.” Communication in Investigative and Legal Contexts, edited by Gavin Oxburgh et al., 1st ed., Wiley, 2015, pp. 133–57, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118769133.ch7.
Parker-Strak, Rachel, et al. “Disruptive Product Development for Online Fast Fashion Retailers.” Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal, vol. 24, no. 3, Apr. 2020, pp. 517–32, https://doi.org/10.1108/JFMM-08-2019-0170.
Regev, Dafna, et al. “Silence during Art Therapy—The Client’s Perspective.” The Arts in Psychotherapy, vol. 48, 2016, pp. 69–75, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aip.2016.02.001.
Sukaryavichute, Elina, et al. “Opportunities and Challenges for Small Businesses in New Transit Neighborhoods: Understanding Impacts through In‐depth Interviews.” Regional Science Policy & Practice, vol. 13, no. 3, 2021, pp. 1025–41, https://doi.org/10.1111/rsp3.12412.

Secondary Data Analysis

A collective term for different ways to examine existing data (rather than generate new primary data collected by the researcher) to answer novel research questions. This data, which might include demographic or environmental statistics, could be published in scholarly studies or released by governmental, commercial, or non-profit entities, and corresponding methods might include combining data and demography. Secondary data can be analyzed through approaches not previously undertaken, or different existing data pools can be connected in new ways.

Resources:

O’Reilly, Michelle and Nikki Kiyimba. " Primary and secondary data analysis." Advanced Qualitative Research: A Guide to Using Theory. Vol. 0. 55 City Road: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2015, pp. . Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529622782.
Goodwin, John, editor. SAGE Secondary Data Analysis. SAGE, 2012.
Heaton, Janet. "What is Secondary Analysis?." SAGE Secondary Data Analysis. Vol. 0. London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2012, pp. 1-20. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473963702.
Chandola, Tarani and Cara Booker. "What Is Archival and Secondary Data Analysis?." Archival and Secondary Data. Vol. 0. 55 City Road: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2021, pp. Sage Research Methods. The SAGE Quantitative Research Kit, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529682762.
Greenstein, Theodore N. "Using Other People's Data." SAGE Secondary Data Analysis. Vol. 0. London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2012, pp. 199-210. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473963702.
Almazan, Elbert P. An Introduction to Secondary Data Analysis. Online video clip. SAGE Video. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd., 30 Jun 2016. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473991750. 14 Mar 2024.

Examples:

Archie, Joyce A. “The Impact of Restorative Justice on Re-Arrest of Young Offenders: A Secondary Data Analysis.” ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 2015. Capella University, Ph.D., https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/impact-restorative-justice-on-re-arrest-young/docview/1717109766/se-2?accountid=14606. ProQuest Central; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global, 1717109766.
Asselin, Jennifer. “Characteristics of Male and Female College Students with Weight Dissatisfaction: A Secondary Data Analysis.” ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 2012. University of Rhode Island, M.S., https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/characteristics-male-female-college-students-with/docview/1010264221/se-2?accountid=14606. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global, 1010264221.
Bauer, Silvia, et al. “Changes in Nutritional Status in Nursing Home Residents and Associated Factors in Nutritional Status Decline: A Secondary Data Analysis.” Journal of Advanced Nursing, vol. 73, no. 10, Oct. 2017, pp. 2420–29. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.13297.
Black, Tara, et al. “The Intersection of Child Welfare, Intimate Partner Violence and Child Custody Disputes: Secondary Data Analysis of the Ontario Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect.” Journal of Public Child Welfare, vol. 15, no. 4, Aug. 2021, pp. 473–86. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2020.1751770.
Juurlink, T. T., et al. “Employment in Personality Disorders and the Effectiveness of Individual Placement and Support: Outcomes from a Secondary Data Analysis.” Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, vol. 30, no. 2, June 2020, pp. 255–62. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1007/s10926-019-09868-9.
Pérez-López, Faustino R., et al. “Hormonal Contraceptives and the Risk of Suicide: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, vol. 251, Aug. 2020, pp. 28–35. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2020.04.053.
Smith, Emma. “Pitfalls and Promises: The Use of Secondary Data Analysis in Educational Research.” British Journal of Educational Studies, vol. 56, no. 3, Sept. 2008, pp. 323–39. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8527.2008.00405.x.
Tuisk, Tarmo, and Gunnar Prause. “Socio-Economic Aspects of Free Public Transport.” Reliability and Statistics in Transportation and Communication, edited by Igor Kabashkin et al., vol. 68, Springer International Publishing, 2019, pp. 3–13. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12450-2_1.
Ujiie, Joanne, and Stephen Krashen. “Is Acclaimed Children’s Literature Popular Among Children? A Secondary Analysis of Nilson, Peterson, and Searfoss.” Knowledge Quest, vol. 34, no. 1, Oct. 2005, pp. 39–40. eLibrary; Library & Information Science Abstracts (LISA); ProQuest Central, 194726491.
Verma, Madhur, et al. “Trends and Patterns of Second-Hand Smoke Exposure amongst the Non-Smokers in India-A Secondary Data Analysis from the Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS) I & II.” PLOS ONE, edited by Stanton A. Glantz, vol. 15, no. 6, June 2020, p. e0233861. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233861.

Meta-analysis

A form of secondary data analysis in which multiple scholarly studies on a topic are systematically collected and synthesized to identify overall patterns. Meta-analysis is literally a study of studies, so the material it examines is published scholarly research. Two important aspects form the crux of meta-analysis: systematic collection of studies (articulating aspects such as the databases searched, the search terms used, and the selection criteria imposed) and systematic processing of collected studies (identifying how the material was analyzed with statistical analysis or categorization). The goal is to make these procedures as transparent and reproducible as possible. Meta-analysis is considered to be the platinum standard of research synthesis when done appropriately because it mitigates the variance necessarily present in any single study and produces an overall understanding. As such, the strength of a meta-analysis is how comprehensive it is about its topic without becoming so broad as to lose coherence.

Resources:

Cooper, Harris. Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis: A Step-by-Step Approach. Fifth Edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc, 2017. Sage Research Methods, Applied Social Research Methods, 21 Mar 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071878644
Field, Andy P. "Meta-Analysis." The SAGE Handbook of Quantitative Methods in Psychology. London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2009, pp. 404-22. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857020994.
Sagoe, Dominic. “Methods Used in a Meta-Analysis and Meta-Regression Analysis of the Global Epidemiology of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use.” Sage Research Methods, 1 Jan. 2014, methods-sagepub-com.liblink.uncw.edu/case/meta-analysis-regression-global-epidemiology-anabolic-androgenic-steroid
Corcoran, Jacqueline and Julia H. Littell. "Meta-Analyses." The Handbook of Social Work Research Methods.Second Edition ed 55 City Road: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2010, pp. 299-312. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781544364902.
Wolf, Fredric. Meta-Analysis. SAGE Publications, Inc., 1986, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412984980
Carpenter, Christopher J. An Introduction to Meta-Analysis. Online video clip. SAGE Video. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd., 30 Sep 2016. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473997370. 21 Mar 2024.
ArchMiller, Althea A., et al. “Formalizing the Definition of Meta-Analysis in Molecular Ecology.” Molecular Ecology, vol. 24, no. 16, 2015, pp. 4042–51. Wiley Online Library, https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.13264.

Examples:

Bailey, Thomas, et al. “Childhood Trauma Is Associated With Severity of Hallucinations and Delusions in Psychotic Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Schizophrenia Bulletin, vol. 44, no. 5, Aug. 2018, pp. 1111–22. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbx161.
Bennett, Trevor, et al. “The Statistical Association between Drug Misuse and Crime: A Meta-Analysis.” Aggression and Violent Behavior, vol. 13, no. 2, Mar. 2008, pp. 107–18. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2008.02.001.
Carpenter, Christopher J. Researching Sex Differences in Response to Sexual vs. Emotional Infidelity Using Meta-Analysis. Online video recording, SAGE Video. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd, 2016. DOI.org (Crossref), doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473997363.
Koesters, Markus, et al. “Agomelatine Efficacy and Acceptability Revisited: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Published and Unpublished Randomised Trials.” British Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 203, no. 3, Sept. 2013, pp. 179–87. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.112.120196.
Lee, Daniel, et al. The Best Guitar Player in the World: A Meta-Analysis of Ten Top-Tens. 2019. ResearchGate.
Lereya, Suzet Tanya, et al. “Parenting Behavior and the Risk of Becoming a Victim and a Bully/Victim: A Meta-Analysis Study.” Child Abuse & Neglect, vol. 37, no. 12, Dec. 2013, pp. 1091–108. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.03.001.
Newland, Pamela, and B. Ann Bettencourt. “Effectiveness of Mindfulness-Based Art Therapy for Symptoms of Anxiety, Depression, and Fatigue: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, vol. 41, Nov. 2020, p. 101246. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2020.101246.
Postmes, Tom, and Russell Spears. “Deindividuation and Antinormative Behavior: A Meta-Analysis.” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 123, no. 3, May 1998, pp. 238–59. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.123.3.238.
Stavnichuk, Mariya, et al. “A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Bone Loss in Space Travelers.” Npj Microgravity, vol. 6, no. 1, May 2020, p. 13. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-020-0103-2.
Zhang, Min, and Barbara T. H. Yen. “The Impact of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) on Land and Property Values: A Meta-Analysis.” Land Use Policy, vol. 96, July 2020, p. 104684. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104684.

Experimentation

Experimentation is a method that seeks to identify a causal relationship between an independent variable (the cause) and a dependent variable (the effect). Experiments thus produce empirical data about phenomena that can be observed, by attempting to control as many situational aspects as possible to isolate precisely what is being examined. They perform a systematic exploration by separating what is being observed into two groups: an experimental group (or groups) that receives an intervention and a control group that does not. We tend to associate experiments with the scientific method of hypothesizing about observable phenomena and then testing that hypothesis through a controlled experiment.

Resources:

Ritter, Frank E., et al. "Introduction." Running Behavioral Studies with Human Participants: A Practical Guide. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2013, pp. 1-18. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452270067
Brown, Steven, and Lawrence Melamed. Experimental Design and Analysis. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States of America: SAGE Publications, Inc., 1990. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412984218L.
Lewis-Beck, Michael S., et al. "Experiment." The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods.Edited by Vol. 0. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc., 2004, pp. 350-54. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412950589.
Ariel, Barak, et al. " Introduction." Experimental Designs. Vol. 0. 55 City Road: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2021, pp. . Sage Research Methods. The SAGE Quantitative Research Kit, 4 Apr 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529682779.
Boruch, Robert F. “Randomized Experiments for Planning and Evaluation.” Sage Research Methods, 11 Jan. 2011, methods-sagepub-com.liblink.uncw.edu/book/randomized-experiments-for-planning-and-evaluation
Esfandiari, Matash. Introduction to Experimental Design. Online video clip. SAGE Video. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd., 30 Sep 2016. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473993266. 4 Apr 2024.
E.Kirk, Roger. Experimental Design: Procedures for the Behavioral Sciences. SAGE Publications, Inc., 2013. methods-sagepub-com.liblink.uncw.edu, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483384733

Examples:

Birkeland, Sigbjørn, et al. “An Experimental Study of Prosocial Motivation among Criminals.” Experimental Economics, vol. 17, no. 4, 2014, pp. 501–11, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10683-013-9380-x.
Cobb, Paul, et al. “Design Experiments in Educational Research.” Educational Researcher, vol. 32, no. 1, 2003, pp. 9–13, https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X032001009.
Das, I., and A. Arora. “Alternate Microwave and Convective Hot Air Application for Rapid Mushroom Drying.” Journal of Food Engineering, vol. 223, 2018, pp. 208–19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.10.018.
De Petrillo, Lili, and Ellen Winner. “Does Art Improve Mood? A Test of a Key Assumption Underlying Art Therapy.” Art Therapy, vol. 22, no. 4, 2005, pp. 205–12, https://doi.org/10.1080/07421656.2005.10129521.
Ekici, Celil, and Cigdem Alagoz. “Embodied Phenomenology in Mathematical Modelling of Sailing for Integrated STEM Learning.” Mathematical Modelling Education and Sense-Making, edited by Gloria Ann Stillman et al., Springer International Publishing, 2020, pp. 493–504, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37673-4_42.
Mehrtens, Anne, et al. “Understanding Flow Patterns from the Field – Controlled Laboratory Experiments on the Transport Behavior of Veterinary Antibiotics in the Presence of Liquid Manure.” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 821, 2022, p. 153415, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153415.
Riach, P. A., and J. Rich. “Testing for Sexual Discrimination in the Labour Market.” Australian Economic Papers, vol. 26, no. 49, 1987, pp. 165–78, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8454.1987.tb00500.x.
Sun, Guibo, et al. “New Metro System and Active Travel: A Natural Experiment.” Environment International, vol. 138, 2020, p. 105605, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105605.
Wurtele, Sandy K. “Teaching Personal Safety Skills to Four-Year-Old Children: A Behavioral Approach.” Behavior Therapy, vol. 21, no. 1, 1990, pp. 25–32, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(05)80186-8.

Case Studies

Case study may not be a singular method but an approach that encompasses multiple methods. It focuses in depth on a small number of cases (n)—or even one—and usually collects several types of (usually qualitative) data. (This might be a key aspect: it may be that a case study must collect at least some new data observations, although it also can include secondary data analysis.) These features may make case study a thick slice method (or approach) in contrast to a thin slice method such as surveys. Case studies also are different than experiments because there are not controlled inventions, although there may be overlaps between case studies and quasi-experiments (also called natural experiments), which are observational but do not enforce experimental conditions and procedures.

Resources:

Tight, Malcolm. Understanding Case Study Research: Small-Scale Research with Meaning. 1 Oliver’s Yard, 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473920118
Thomas, Gary and Kevin Myers. "What is case study?." The Anatomy of the Case Study. 55 City Road: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2015, pp. 5-16. Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473920156
Swanborn, Peter. Case Study Research: What, Why and How?. First Edition, 55 City Road, London: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2010. Sage Research Methods, 11 Apr 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526485168.
McLeod, John. “Case Study Research: In Counselling and Psychotherapy.” Shibboleth Authentication Request, 20 Dec. 2013, methods-sagepub-com.liblink.uncw.edu/book/case-study-research-in-counselling-and-psychotherapy.
Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice. SAGE Publications, Ltd, 2009. methods-sagepub-com.liblink.uncw.edu, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446268322

Examples:

Chen, Kuan-Jen, et al. “Tramadol-Related Psychosis in a Patient with Bipolar I Disorder.” Acta Neuropsychiatrica, vol. 27, no. 2, Apr. 2015, pp. 126–28. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1017/neu.2014.45.
Cozens, Paul, et al. “Managing Crime and the Fear of Crime at Railway Stations––a Case Study in South Wales (UK).” International Journal of Transport Management, vol. 1, no. 3, Jan. 2003, pp. 121–32. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijtm.2003.10.001.
Durrani, Huma. “Facilitating Attachment in Children with Autism through Art Therapy: A Case Study.” Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, vol. 24, no. 2, June 2014, pp. 99–108. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036974.
Goeft, Ute, and Jackie Alder. “Sustainable Mountain Biking: A Case Study from the Southwest of Western Australia.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism, vol. 9, no. 3, Jan. 2001, pp. 193–211. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580108667398.
Guangul, Fiseha M., et al. “Challenges of Remote Assessment in Higher Education in the Context of COVID-19: A Case Study of Middle East College.” Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, vol. 32, no. 4, Nov. 2020, pp. 519–35. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-020-09340-w.
Heumann, Leonard F. “Assisted Living in Public Housing: A Case Study of Mixing Frail Elderly and Younger Persons with Chronic Mental Illness and Substance Abuse Histories.” Housing Policy Debate, vol. 7, no. 3, Jan. 1996, pp. 447–71. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.1996.9521229.
Lavorgna, Anita, and Lisa Sugiura. “Caught in a Lie: The Rise and Fall of a Respectable Deviant.” Deviant Behavior, vol. 40, no. 9, Sept. 2019, pp. 1043–56. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2018.1456724.
Ramirez, O. “Survivors of School Bullying: A Collective Case Study.” Children & Schools, vol. 35, no. 2, Apr. 2013, pp. 93–99. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1093/cs/cdt001.
Stjernborg, Vanessa, and Ola Mattisson. “The Role of Public Transport in Society—A Case Study of General Policy Documents in Sweden.” Sustainability, vol. 8, no. 11, Nov. 2016, p. 1120. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.3390/su8111120.
Vaaranen-Valkonen, Nina. “Intra-Familial Child Sexual Abuse: A Case Study of the Lifeline Method in Narrative Exposure Therapy.” The Journal of Sexual Medicine, vol. 14, no. Supplement_4b, May 2017, pp. e310–e310. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2017.04.486.

Ethnography

Ethnography is the in-depth qualitative description of a social group or community of people from an embedded perspective. Drawing from anthropology and sociology, it includes methods such as field notes, interviews, and artifact collection. Ethnography has some similarities to case study research, although the former addresses a specific population and the latter examines a defined entity or situation.

Resources:

Mark Schoepfle, G. " Orientation to Ethnography and Cognitive Ethnography." Introduction to Cognitive Ethnography and Systematic Field Work. Vol. 0. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2022, pp. . Sage Research Methods, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071938973.
Gobo, Giampietro. Doing Ethnography. London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2008. Sage Research Methods, Introducing Qualitative Methods, 20 Apr 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857028976.
Mills, David and Missy Morton. Ethnography in Education. London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2013. Sage Research Methods, Research Methods in Education, 20 Apr 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446251201.
Delamont, Sara. What Do You Mean By the Term "Ethnography"? Online video clip. SAGE Video. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd., 1 Jan 2011. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412993739. 20 Apr 2024.
Lewis, Jamie. Ethnography in a Laboratory Setting. Online video clip. SAGE Video. London: SAGE Publications, Ltd., 1 Jan 2016. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473963221. 20 Apr 2024.
Hodson, Randy. "Introduction." Analyzing Documentary Accounts. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., 1999, pp. 1-10. Sage Research Methods. Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412983372.